History Of The Apothecary Garden
Posted by: "Lilye"
Thu May 8, 2008 5:21 pm (PDT)

History Of The Apothecary Garden
by Tamarra S. James

The idea of separating a garden into one for useful plants and another for beauty is a fairly recent innovation. Until about three hundred years ago, all plants were considered to be useful either as medicine or food, some in a practical way, others in a purely symbolic application. Even the beauty of the plants themselves was thought to be medicinal, contributing to the general health of the individual by strengthening the spirit, giving comfort to the soul, and lifting depression of the mood. One must not lose sight of thisprinciple when approaching the medieval garden, as in a very real sense, all gardens had their origin in the physic garden.

Aside from the few basic medicinal plants grown by every housewife for the cure of common minor ills, much like we use the patented medicines of today, the bulk of the truly curative herbs were originally cultivated in the monastery gardens. Healing was, from the earliest recorded times granted the distinction of being a religious practice. Each culture of the Pagan period had its healing gods, and in evolution, one of the greatest miracles attributed to the god of the new religion was the power to heal.

The monks were, by and large a literate class of people where the greater population was not, so it is that the majority of the hard information regarding growth, plant description, and garden lists has come from them. We can assume that the gardens of the doctors and apothecaries were similar if on a much smaller scale, as the monks had greater access to plants imported from other parts of the world than the common man.

The infirmary garden of a monastery generally consisted of several raised rectangular beds with walkways between them. Most of the plants were to be found in the Emperor Charlemagne's list of medicinal herbs which formed a part of his "Capitulare de Villis" a document from the ninth century which detailed the plants he wished his gardeners' to plant on his estates and which he encouragedall of his subjects to plant for the benefit of the nation.

As society reached out of the Middle Ages into the fifteenth century, new plants were being brought back from the Americas. Master Ion Gardener wrote the practical text, "The Feate of Gardening". This was a set of instructions on cultivation, grafting, and the culture of herbs. All of the herbs listed in Master Ion's treatise were old world, and had been commonly grown all over Europe for hundreds of years. It reached beyond the folklore of plants andprovided a sound scientific base for the gardener to work from.

In the sixteenth century we find the first wave of dramatic change in the gardening consciousness of Europe since the beginning of the Crusades. Prior to this there had been a limited number of herbs that had grown familiar to the herbalist through years of cultivation and use. Now we have almost daily expansion of the herbalists, as navigators and explorers carried back new seedand rootstock, along with documents containing native applications of the medicines of their lands. Most significant in this influx of new botanicals were those from the Americas.

The feeling of the time is best illustrated by a quotation from Holinshed, a historian of the sixteenth century. "It is a wonder also to see how many strange herbs, plants, and annual fruits are daily brought unto us from the Indies, Americas, Taprobane, Canary Isles and all parts of the world. I have seen in someone's garden to the number of three or four hundred of them, if not more, the half of those names within forty years past we had no manner of knowledge."

The first botanic gardens as places of study were founded in Padua Italy 1545 and in Oxford England 1621. These schools of herbalism effectively took medicine out of the hands of the monastery and placed it under the control of the educating physicians. Doctors began to lecture on the healing properties of herbs, and their reliance on leeching, or bleeding, and chemical alchemy was largely replaced by the study of the new science of herbal alchemy.

It was in the seventeenth century, following this great influx of herbs, that the largest number of herbals were published. Many of them included the New World herbs as a matter of course. Most of these books were written by doctors of medicine, but they were now leaning more heavily on the botanical properties and characteristics of plants than on the previous, almost mystical systems of humours, planetary influences, and doctrine of signatures.

Prior to this time, almost all herbals relied heavily on Dioscorides volume entitled "De Materia Medica". It required the discovery of new plants to generate original research and the development of herbal philosophy. There was still a problem in that many of these authors were writing about plants they had never seen or used. There existed popular engraving templates for the illustration of herbals, usually created by artists rather than herbalists, and often from description instead of observation. In some cases, such as JohnGerard's "Great Herbal", or "History of Plants" the wrong illustration was placed in the text, confusing the reader, and the dilettante herbalist, who repeated the error in his own book.

In 1577 an herbal of an entirely new type was translated from the Spanish into English. It was written by Nicholas Monardes, and was entitled, "Joyfull Newes Out Of The Newe Founde Worlde". This book catalogued and described medicinal plants from America. Then, in 1629 and 1640 a pair of books were published that changed the entire face of herb lore. They are often considered to be the greatest English books on herbs and plants ever published. They were written by John Parkinson, and are entitled respectively, "Paradisi I Sole Paradisus Terrestris" and "Theatrum Botanicum: The Theatre of Plants". More than 3,000 plants are described in this volume, and unlike their predecessors,these books combine history, horticulture, botany, and pharmacy all in one place. Parkinson is also the first herbal author to seriously attempt botanical classification into tribes or families of plants, and into classes.

The herbals of Parkinson and Gerard went to the New World along with the settlers, and a selection of seed and rootstock for various medicinal herbs accompanied them. The ships returned to England with native North American plants to be cultivated, and studied in the European botanical colleges and gardens. The properties of many of the plants were learned from the Native Indians, which lead to the publication of John Josselyn's book, "New England's Rarities Discovered" in 1672. This book included "The Physical and ChyrurgicalRemedies Wherewith The Natives Constantly Use To Cure Their Distempers, Wounds and Sores". In 1728, John Bartram founded North America's first botanic garden near Philadelphia. In 1765, he was commissioned 'Botanizer Royal For America' and began to travel and collect plants, accompanied by his son, who was a major botanical artist. It is through the labours of these two men that many North American herbs came to the attention of the Swedish Botanist Carl Linnaeus, and were classified by him.

The study of the herb garden is in itself a study in the evolution of botanical medicine and its development. In the garden lists we see not just the herbs that were known to the early doctor, but more importantly, those which were used by him.

A list of the herbs from John Bartram's garden examined in relation to the monastery garden of the ninth century gives indication of a greater range of subtlety in the mixing of possible ingredients, and a wider set of applications than those available to the lay brothers in their time. An asterick marks the New World herbs.

Melissa officinalis, Lemon Balm.
Ocimum basilicum, Sweet Basil
*Mondara didyma, Bee Balm.
*Cimicifuga racemosa, Black Cohosh.
*Eupatorium perfolatum, Boneset.
Borago officinalis, Borage.
Nepeta cataria, Catnip.
Dianthus caryophyllus, Clove Pink.
Vinca major, Periwinkle.
Symphytum officinale, Comfrey.
Digitalis purpurea, Fox Glove.
Cochlearia amoracia, Horseradish.
Pulmonaria officinalis, Lungwort.
*Lobelia siphilitica, Great Lobelia.
Calendula officinalis, Pot Marigold.
Verbascum thapsus, Mullein.
Paeonia officinalis, Peony.
Myrtus communis, Myrtle.
Hypericum perforatum, St. John's Wort.
Teucrium marum, Germander.
Galium odoratum, Sweet Woodruff.
Tanacetum vulgare, Tansy.
Artemisia dracunculus, French Tarragon.
Dipsacus fullonum, Fuller's Teasle.
*Asarum virginicum, Wild Ginger.
*Gaultheria procumbens, Wintergreen.
Acorus calamus, Sweet Flag.
Crocus sativa, Saffron Crocus.
Allium schoenoprasum, Chives.
Lonicora caprifolium, Woodbine Honeysuckle.
Rubus fruticosus, Blackberry.
*Hamamelis virginiana, Witch Hazel.
Lindera benzoin, Spice Bush.
Punica granatum, Pomegranate.
Cassia acutifolia, Alexandrian Senna.
Ilex aquifolium, English holly.
*Populus candicans, Poplar, Balm of Gilead.
*Cornus florida, Dogwood.
*Sassafras albidum, Sassafras.
Laurus nobilis, Bay laurel.


The following herbs are also to be included in this garden. Latin names can be found in the previous list:

Chamomile, Lovage, Dill, Fennel,Horehound, Hyssop, French Lavender, Pennyroyal, Mint, Rosemary, Rue, Agrimony, Sage, Thyme, Yarrow, Madonna Lily, Apothecary's Rose

It is likely that this is an optimistic list since weather conditions in Philadelphia would have made the growth of plants such as Pomegranate extremely difficult, although most of the herbs would quite handily grow there. As you can see, the majority of the herbs from the ninth century list are still included, with the many additions of the New World herbs. Today, many of these herbs arestill grown for their use as pharmaceuticals and even as medicine advances into the "Modern age" it remains rooted with the herbs, in the origins of the apothecary garden.

Bibliography
# John Gerard. The Herbal Or General History of Plants.Facsimile Edition Of 1633 Edition. Dover Publications NY 1975.

# Gosta Brodin. Agnus Castus A Middle English Herbal. Reconstructed from various manuscripts. Upsalla 1950.

# Andrew Boorde. Fyrst Boke Of The Introduction Of Knowledge. Repro Of The 1542 Edition. Early English Text Society Reprint 1964.

# Sarah Garland. The Herb Garden. Penguin Books NY 1984.

# Rosetta E. Clarkson. The Golden Age Of Herbs And Herbalists.Dover Publications NY 1972.

# L. Butler & C. Given-Wilson. Medieval Monasteries Of Great Britain. Michael Joseph London 1983.

# Nicholas Culpepper. Culpepper's Complete Herbal. W. Foulsham & Co. London.

from Green Witch Garden yahoo group
-------

Flower Power: Eat some flowers with your soup or salad or veggies and get a potent reminder of your own vitality and potential.

By Daniela Koromzay

Floating on a sea of baby lettuce, a nasturtium draws my eyes like a bright orange beacon. I've never thought of eating flowers, but here on my plate at a local café is the same Day-Glo bloom I'm used to admiring while hiking or wandering the neighborhood; the idea of popping such beauty into my mouth makes me pause.

I smell the blossom first, then touch its velvety surface to my lips. I hold the petal away from me and think, "Is this really OK to eat?" I'm not concerned about toxicity, but about symbolism: Here is a magnificent, fleeting display of aliveness—offered up for my pleasure, to crunch and swallow. A blossom is a plant's last creative shout before turning to seed; a potent reminder of our own potential to unfurl, to bloom, and ultimately to wilt; a decadent display of beauty. And I'm about to eat it!

Of course, take away its exotic appearance, and a flower is no different than any common fruit or vegetable that is picked and eaten. With that thought, I put it in my mouth and am surprised at how fleshy and peppery it is, how it leaves a residue of sweetness.

That first flower was a revelation—that simple foodstuffs can be so provocative, visually, sensually, and philosophically. It renewed my sense of gratitude for the beauty and bounty of the earth and for my own vitality and potential.

Of course, as soon as I started paying attention, I discovered I was eating flowers all the time. They're disguised as dried spices like saffron, which is actually the stigmata—the inner crimson threads—of Crocus sativus; they flavor preserves like rose petal jam and many vinegars; they're the basis for herbal infusions like hibiscus tea.

No matter how often I saw them and ate them, though, they still had power to thrill me and surprise my palate. And I wasn't the only one affected that way. My sister told me she had been to a party where vast quantities of sushi were served on large trays, a perfect pansy blossom atop each piece. The trays sat on broad tables like purple and white fields, and inspired the guests to nibble slowly, so as not to reduce the magnificent landscape too quickly.

Down the Garden Path

If you garden at all, you probably have beautiful blooms to eat—provided they're organic. For the best flavor, pick flowers early in the day, and eat them as soon as possible. Of course, there are poisonous specimens too, so buy a flower guide for your area before munching like a rabbit on any old backyard bloom. If you have borage, calendulas, chrysanthemums, nasturtiums, pansies, roses, or violets on hand, float a petal on top of pureed soup or mix a few in with your lettuces. Try freezing violets in ice cube trays for a more appetizing rendition of the plastic frozen-fly trick you may remember from childhood.

So many edible flowers are easy to grow, it's almost a crime not to devote some corner of earth—even a window box or pot—to cultivating plants that produce gorgeous blossoms you can both eye and eat. If you have poor soil, try nasturtiums. These creeping vines produce a ton of blossoms ranging from yellow to deep maroon, even in the driest clay soil.

Calendula, also called pot marigold (and commonly used for medicinal purposes), is easy to grow and offers up basketfuls of blossoms in radiant oranges and yellows. After removing the center petals, you can use calendulas to brighten salads and garnish rice dishes, frittatas, or soups. In a pinch, a friend once searched her backyard for something to decorate a birthday cake and came up with late-blooming calendula, whose glossy orange petals gave an electric sheen to the white-frosted cake.

Store-Bought Beauty

If you're not inclined to dirty your hands, or if you're an urban dweller without a garden, don't give up on edible beauty. Visit farmers' markets for the freshest, most reasonably priced selection. Many natural-food stores now carry edible flowers in the produce section, and some chain grocery stores stock them near the fresh herbs. But don't visit your favorite florist shop expecting to use its wares for food: They've been doused with a heavy load of non-food-grade pesticides.

Blossoms are a perishable, often expensive, and some might say non-nutritive commodity. But, I would argue, the deep nourishment that comes through beauty rivals vitamins and calories, at least for those of us who are already well fed. Often, it is the small indulgences that bring the greatest satisfaction—and this luxury won't make you fat or jittery.

Chef Special

Once you get your hands on some edible, organic flowers, try cooking with them. I, for one, am partial to "manicotti" in full bloom—the fleshy, yellow blossoms from zucchini plants, stuffed and baked, make a perfect replacement for the traditional pasta shell. Gerald Gass, head chef at the McEvoy Ranch (http://www.mcevoyranch.com/) in Petaluma, California, often removes these thick petals and sautés them with vegetables in a stir-fry.

Chrysanthemums too, with their sturdy red, white, orange, or yellow petals, can be cooked with seasonal vegetables, adding glorious hues and a pungent flavor. "You don't get these kinds of colors with ordinary food," says Gass, who cooks only with produce grown in the organic gardens outside the ranch kitchen. Indeed, walking with Margaret Koski-Kent, head gardener at the McEvoy Ranch, I was dazzled by dozens of radiant flowers growing among the fruit trees and vegetable beds.

Pick the Proper Petal

Not all buds are pleasing to the palate, I soon discovered, as we walked among the towering hollyhocks and vines heavy with yellow gourds and nibbled on flowers from several plants. The bean blossoms, firm, fresh, and sweet, tasted like their name, but so did a society garlic blossom—lavender-hued and star-shaped. It filled my mouth with the unmistakable taste of garlic and overpowered the flavor of the next few blossoms I sampled. And a deep red salvia bloom, with its long tubular throat, was earthy and tough—not exactly a flower you'd want to serve to guests.

It's easy to forget that what you put into your mouth comes directly from the earth. But a flower can jog your memory and remind you of the garden where it came from and to which we all belong.

Daniela Koromzay writes and teaches yoga in the San Francisco Bay Area.
http://www.yogajournal.com/lifestyle/1735?print=1
Return to http://www.yogajournal.com/lifestyle/1735

--------------